Chaos and Order in The Plagues of Egypt

Ancient Egyptian and biblical thought both conceptualized the universe as a struggle between order and chaos. In Egyptian cosmology, Maat (mꜣꜥ.t) represents order, truth, and justice, while Isfet (ἰzf.t) symbolizes disorder, falsehood, and destruction. Chaos, often personified by the serpent Apophis (Apep), must be continually resisted. However, in the Hebrew Bible, YHWH is not engaged in an eternal struggle but exercises absolute mastery over chaos. This contrast is particularly evident in the ninth and tenth plagues—the plague of darkness (ḥošekh חֹשֶך) and the death of the firstborn (makkat bekhorot מַכַּת בְּכוֹרוֹת)—which directly challenge Egyptian conceptions of divine order and royal legitimacy.

The Ninth Plague: Darkness as the Overthrow of Maat

Egyptian Order and the Cosmic Role of Pharaoh

The Egyptian worldview saw Maat as the underlying principle sustaining both cosmic and societal harmony. Pharaoh, as the earthly embodiment of divine rule, was tasked with maintaining this equilibrium through religious rituals, military victories, and temple construction. Isfet, or chaos, was always present but had to be kept at bay through Pharaoh’s divine authority. Apophis, the serpent of chaos, sought to devour the sun each night, but Ra’s victory over it ensured cosmic renewal (Pinch, Geraldine 2004, p.106).

Light, particularly sunlight, was central to this structure. The daily rising of the sun affirmed Pharaoh’s effectiveness as a ruler. The ninth plague of Exodus 10:21-23, where an overwhelming darkness (ḥošeḵ ‘afelah, חֹשֶך אֲפֵלָה) engulfs Egypt for three days, symbolizes the collapse of Pharaoh’s cosmic role. This is not just a meteorological event—it is the intrusion of Isfet into the heart of Egypt, showing that Pharaoh has lost control.

Biblical Theology: YHWH’s Absolute Control Over Chaos

The Hebrew Bible presents a different view of chaos. Unlike Egyptian thought, where disorder is an eternal enemy to be resisted, the Bible portrays darkness and chaos as entirely subject to divine will. Genesis 1:2 describes the world as tohu va’ḇohu (תֹּהוּ וָבֹהוּ), formless and void, but YHWH effortlessly imposes order through speech. Similarly, in Exodus 10:21, Moses merely extends his hand, and darkness immediately descend. This ability to control such a force demonstrated that YHWH had full control of all creation (Gelander, Genesis, 2009, p.105). 

Notably, this darkness was localized to the Egyptians, while the Israelites in Goshen retained light. This selective application reinforces YHWH’s role as a just and omnipotent ruler, distinguishing between those under divine judgment and those under protection. The plague of darkness thus serves as a polemic against the Egyptian notion that Pharaoh upholds Maat—it demonstrates instead that YHWH alone determines cosmic order.

The Tenth Plague: Death of the Firstborn and the Shattering of Pharaoh’s Legitimacy

Pharaoh’s Firstborn and Egyptian Divine Kingship

In Egyptian royal ideology, the firstborn son of Pharaoh was more than just an heir—he was a divine figure, closely associated with Horus, the son of Osiris. The smooth transition of power from father to son was seen as essential for the continuation of Maat. The sudden, inexplicable death of Pharaoh’s firstborn, as described in Exodus 11:4-5 and 12:29-30, would have signaled an unprecedented rupture in this sacred lineage (Assmann, The Search for God in Ancient Egypt, 2001, p.4-6).

Egyptian texts such as the Instruction for Merikare emphasize that Pharaoh “lives forever like the sun,” suggesting an unbroken chain of divine rulership. The loss of an heir would have been interpreted as divine abandonment, not just a personal tragedy. Moreover, the death of the firstborn extended beyond Pharaoh to every Egyptian household, further emphasizing that YHWH’s judgment applied to the entire nation, not just its leader.

Alternative Perspectives on the Death of the Firstborn

Several scholars have explored different angles on the theological meaning of the final plague:

1. Reversal of Pharaoh’s Infanticide (Measure for Measure)
   Many commentators note that the tenth plague mirrors Pharaoh’s own decree in Exodus 1:22, where Israelite male infants were to be drowned in the Nile. The death of the Egyptian firstborn serves as midah k’neged midah(measure for measure) justice, a recurring biblical theme (Sarna, Exploring Exodus, 1986, pp.90-91).
2. A Challenge to Egyptian Funerary Beliefs
   Egyptian afterlife theology placed immense importance on proper burial rites and the preservation of the ka (vital force). The widespread and sudden death of the firstborn, with no time for proper funerary rites, would have been seen as an ultimate form of disorder (Isfet), disrupting the transition to the afterlife. This aligns with Exodus 12:30, where Pharaoh and the Egyptians experience unprecedented mourning.
3. Connection to the Passover Ritual
   The distinction between the Israelites and Egyptians in the tenth plague reinforces a key theological point: salvation is dependent on obedience to YHWH. The blood of the Passover lamb serves as a protective marker, demonstrating that divine favor is not based on nationality but on covenantal faithfulness (Levenson, The Death and Resurrection of the Beloved Son, 1993, p.168).
4. Cosmic Warfare Against Egyptian Deities
   Some scholars argue that the plagues as a whole, and especially the death of the firstborn, function as a direct assault on the Egyptian pantheon. In this case, the tenth plague is an attack on Osiris (god of the dead), Horus (the divine heir), and Pharaoh himself as a living deity. This interpretation sees Exodus 12:12 (“I will execute judgment against all the gods of Egypt”) as a key statement of divine supremacy (Currid, Ancient Egypt and the Old Testament, 1997, p.109).

Conclusion

The plagues of darkness and death of the firstborn directly undermine Egyptian theological and royal ideologies. The ninth plague attacks Pharaoh’s perceived role as the upholder of Maat, proving that YHWH—not Ra—controls light and darkness. The tenth plague dismantles Pharaoh’s dynastic legitimacy by striking at its very foundation: the firstborn heir.

The contrast between Egyptian and biblical worldviews is stark. While Egyptian theology envisions a perpetual struggle between Maat and Isfet, the Hebrew Bible presents YHWH as the uncontested master of order and chaos. In the Exodus narrative, chaos does not require ongoing resistance—it is simply imposed by divine will, reinforcing the biblical vision of an omnipotent God who directs history according to His purposes.

Bibliography

• Assmann, Jan. The Search for God in Ancient Egypt. Translated by David Lorton. Cornell University Press, 2001.
• Currid, John D. Ancient Egypt and the Old Testament. Baker Academic, 1997.
• Levenson, Jon D. The Death and Resurrection of the Beloved Son: The Transformation of Child Sacrifice in Judaism and Christianity. Yale University Press, 1993.
• Pinch, Geraldine, The Complete Gods and Goddesses Of Ancient Egypt, Oxford 2004. 
• Sarna, Nahum M. Exploring Exodus: The Heritage of Biblical Israel. Schocken, 1986.
• שמאי גלנדר, ספר בראשית, רעננה 2009