The celebration of Hanukkah represents an ironic tension in Jewish history. It commemorates the Hasmonean victory over Hellenistic forces and the rededication of the Second Temple, yet the Pharisees—the spiritual forebears of the Rabbinic sages—frequently clashed with the Hasmoneans during their reign. This irony becomes apparent when analyzing the historical and textual background, drawing on sources like the Talmud (Shabbat 21b), the Pesher Habakkuk, and Josephus’ writings, which highlight the nuanced and fraught relationship between the Pharisees and the Hasmoneans.
1. The Hasmonean Revolt and Its Aftermath
The Hasmonean revolt (167–160 BCE) began as a grassroots rebellion led by Mattathias the priest and his sons against Antiochus IV Epiphanes, a Seleucid ruler who sought to impose Hellenistic practices on the Jewish population. Antiochus desecrated the Temple by erecting an altar to Zeus and banning Jewish practices like circumcision and Sabbath observance. Judah Maccabee’s leadership culminated in the recapture and purification of the Temple in 164 BCE, which Hanukkah commemorates.
However, as the Hasmoneans transitioned from a revolutionary family to a ruling dynasty, they consolidated power in ways that alienated various Jewish groups. They took on the dual role of king and high priest, a violation of traditional Jewish norms, as kingship was associated with the Davidic line, while the high priesthood belonged to the Zadokite lineage.
2. The Books of Maccabees and the Hanukkah Narrative
The Books of Maccabees, particularly 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees, are essential historical sources for understanding the Hasmonean revolt and the origins of Hanukkah. These texts provide a contemporary or near-contemporary account of the events leading to the rededication of the Temple but also reveal a narrative tension when compared to the later Rabbinic perspective on Hanukkah.
2.1. 1 Maccabees: Political and Military Triumph
The Book of 1 Maccabees, written in Hebrew or Aramaic (and preserved in Greek), offers a detailed historical account of the Maccabean revolt. It celebrates the military and political achievements of Judah Maccabee and his brothers as divinely sanctioned:
“Then Judas and his brothers said: ‘Behold, our enemies are crushed; let us go up to cleanse the sanctuary and dedicate it.’ So they celebrated the dedication of the altar for eight days and offered burnt offerings with joy.” (1 Maccabees 4:36, 56)
1 Maccabees emphasizes:
- Military heroism: The Maccabees are portrayed as divinely inspired leaders who liberate the Jewish people from Hellenistic oppression.
- National independence: The text frames the revolt as a movement not only for religious freedom but also for political autonomy, culminating in the establishment of the Hasmonean dynasty.
Relation to the Pharisaic Perspective: The Pharisaic sages, however, later de-emphasized the military and political aspects of Hanukkah, likely because these themes conflicted with their values of spiritual humility and Torah-centered leadership. They preferred to focus on the miraculous oil and the sanctity of the Temple rather than celebrating the Hasmonean dynasty’s rise to power.
2.2. 2 Maccabees: Religious and Divine Themes
The Book of 2 Maccabees, written in Greek and more theological in nature, presents the events from a perspective that aligns more closely with the Rabbinic focus on divine intervention and religious renewal. For example:
“They decreed by public ordinance and vote that the whole nation of the Jews should celebrate these days every year.” (2 Maccabees 10:8)
This text also describes miraculous occurrences, such as interventions, that inspire and guide the Maccabean revolt. While it acknowledges the military efforts, it shifts much of the focus to Theological triumph where God’s role in protecting the Jewish people and enabling the rededication of the Temple. A second theme is Martyrdom and fidelity with Stories of individuals who endured torture and death rather than compromise their faith, such as in the account of the mother and her seven sons (2 Maccabees 7).
Relation to Rabbinic Tradition: The emphasis on divine miracles and the sanctity of Jewish law in 2 Maccabees resonates with the later Rabbinic narrative of Hanukkah. However, the Rabbinic sages likely downplayed some of the more Hellenistic elements in 2 Maccabees (e.g., its Greek literary style and philosophical influences) to align the story more closely with their worldview.
2.3. Hanukkah and the Absence of Pharisees
Interestingly, the Books of Maccabees make no mention of the Pharisees (unless one argues that the Scribes were an early version of this group), as these texts predate the Pharisaic prominence in Jewish society. Instead, they reflect the Hasmoneans’ early role as defenders of traditional Jewish practices. However, the Hasmoneans’ subsequent history—including their adoption of Hellenistic customs, their centralization of power, and their conflicts with the Pharisees—is absent from these accounts.
Historical Problem:
- The Hasmoneans’ later actions, which alienated groups like the Pharisees, complicate the narrative presented in the Books of Maccabees.
- While these books celebrate the Hasmoneans as religious and national heroes, Rabbinic tradition had to grapple with the dynasty’s decline into tyranny and its alignment with the Sadducees, a group often opposed to Pharisaic ideology.
2.4. The Rabbinic Reinterpretation
The Rabbinic sages inherited the legacy of Hanukkah but reframed it to reflect their values:
- Miracle Over Might: The Rabbinic narrative in the Talmud (Shabbat 21b) shifts the focus from military triumph to the miracle of the oil, thus emphasizing divine intervention over human power.
- Spiritual Over Political: By omitting the Hasmonean dynasty’s role, the Rabbis avoided celebrating a dynasty that had, in their view, betrayed the spiritual ideals of Judaism.
- Unity Over Division: Hanukkah was reimagined as a unifying religious festival, transcending the sectarian conflicts that characterized the Hasmonean period.
3. Hanukkah in the Talmud (Shabbat 21b)
The Talmud provides the canonical rabbinic explanation for Hanukkah:
“What is [the reason for] Hanukkah? The Sages taught: On the twenty-fifth of Kislev, the days of Hanukkah are eight… When the Greeks entered the Sanctuary, they defiled all the oils, and when the Hasmonean monarchy overcame them, they searched and found only one cruse of oil… enough to light for one day. A miracle occurred, and it lit for eight days.” (Shabbat 21b)
The focus here is on the miraculous endurance of the oil, not the Hasmoneans’ military victory or political achievements. This omission is telling. By highlighting the divine intervention and spiritual restoration, the sages downplay the Hasmoneans’ subsequent actions, which were often at odds with Pharisaic values.
3.1 Historical Context:
- By the time of the Talmud’s redaction (3rd–5th centuries CE), the Hasmonean dynasty had been long defunct, and their legacy was largely viewed through the lens of their later corruption. The Pharisaic sages, who emphasized humility and adherence to Torah, likely viewed the Hasmoneans’ shift toward authoritarianism and Hellenistic practices as a betrayal of their initial ideals.
4. The Pesher Habakkuk (1QpHab)
The Pesher Habakkuk, part of the Dead Sea Scrolls, is a commentary on the book of Habakkuk that reflects the worldview of a sectarian Jewish group, often identified with the Essenes. The text condemns the “Wicked Priest,” widely interpreted as a Hasmonean ruler, for oppressing the “Teacher of Righteousness” and defiling the Temple:
“He pursued after the Teacher of Righteousness to swallow him in his heat and in his anger, in the place of his exile… For the Wicked Priest did not trust in God at the time of his truth, and he defiled the precepts for the sake of wealth.” (1QpHab 8:8–12)
The Wicked Priest, likely John Hyrcanus or Alexander Jannaeus, represents the Hasmoneans’ deviation from religious fidelity. They are portrayed as enemies of the righteous and as corrupt rulers who exploited their power.
This critique reflects broader disillusionment with the Hasmoneans among sectarian groups. While the Hasmoneans began as defenders of religious tradition, their later association with Hellenistic practices and internal Jewish oppression led to a growing hatred of the family and seeing them as an unlawful and evil opposition to the righteous men of the world.
5. Josephus’ Accounts
Josephus, in Antiquities of the Jews, provides a detailed history of the Hasmonean dynasty. He portrays their initial zeal for Jewish autonomy but also documents their descent into factionalism and authoritarianism. For example:
On John Hyrcanus, Josephus writes “Hyrcanus broke off his relations with the Pharisees… and threw in his lot with the Sadducees, whose outlook is the reverse of theirs.” (Antiquities 13.288)
On Alexander Jannaeus he writes “The king… crucified about eight hundred of his enemies before the eyes of their wives and children and slaughtered their families as they watched.” (Antiquities 13.380–381)
Josephus reflects the complexities of the Hasmonean legacy: they were both liberators and oppressors. While they saved Judaism from Hellenistic eradication, they also alienated major segments of the Jewish population, particularly the Pharisees.
6. Pharisaic and Rabbinic Reinterpretation
The Pharisees, who were persecuted by the Hasmoneans, emerged as dominant after the fall of the Second Temple in 70 CE. In this new context, the sages reframed Hanukkah to emphasize spiritual themes rather than political ones. The miracle of the oil, a narrative absent in early Hasmonean accounts like 1 Maccabees, allowed the sages to celebrate Hanukkah without glorifying the Hasmoneans. The Hasmoneans were both the heroes and antagonists of Jewish history. The Pharisees, despite their historical enmity with the Hasmoneans, institutionalized a festival rooted in Hasmonean achievements while sidelining their political legacy. There is no historical explanation of why this was done, however, it is common in rabbinic practice to take common practices as present them as significant to Jewish law even if they have a questionable background. This monumentalizing of a practice with its old roots in the second temple led rabbinic authorities to institute it as part of Jewish identity without its political background.
7. Conclusion: The Historical Problem
The celebration of Hanukkah encapsulates the complexities of Jewish history. The Pharisaic sages, inheritors of a tradition often at odds with the Hasmoneans, redefined the festival to focus on divine intervention and religious renewal. Using sources like the Talmud, Pesher Habakkuk, and Josephus, we see how the Hasmoneans’ legacy evolved from liberators to controversial rulers. This reinterpretation allowed the sages to transform Hanukkah into a unifying celebration of Jewish resilience while navigating the problematic aspects of its origin. The Books of Maccabees provide a historical foundation for Hanukkah, portraying the Hasmoneans as heroic liberators. However, the Rabbinic sages, inheriting Pharisaic traditions, viewed the later Hasmonean dynasty with suspicion and even disdain. Their reinterpretation of Hanukkah as a celebration of divine miracles and spiritual renewal allowed them to commemorate the festival while distancing themselves from the Hasmoneans’ political legacy. This redefinition underscores the irony: a festival born of Hasmonean victories became a celebration shaped by their ideological opponents.
Primary Sources
Josephus. The Antiquities of the Jews. Translated by William Whiston, Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
Josephus. The Jewish War. Translated by William Whiston, Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
“The Pesher Habakkuk.” In The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation, translated by Michael Wise, Martin Abegg Jr., and Edward Cook, HarperOne, 2005, pp. 83–91.
1 Maccabees. In The New Oxford Annotated Bible with Apocrypha, edited by Michael D. Coogan et al., 5th ed., Oxford UP, 2018, pp. 1510–1535.
2 Maccabees. In The New Oxford Annotated Bible with Apocrypha, edited by Michael D. Coogan et al., 5th ed., Oxford UP, 2018, pp. 1536–1557.
Secondary Sources
Collins, John J. Between Athens and Jerusalem: Jewish Identity in the Hellenistic Diaspora. 2nd ed., Eerdmans, 2000.
Grabbe, Lester L. An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. T&T Clark, 2010.
Harrington, Daniel J. The Maccabean Revolt: Anatomy of a Biblical Revolution. Michael Glazier, 1988.
Stern, Menahem. Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism. Vol. 2, The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1980.
Schiffman, Lawrence H. Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls: The History of Judaism, the Background of Christianity, the Lost Library of Qumran. Doubleday, 1995.
Schwartz, Seth. The Ancient Jews from Alexander to Muhammad. Cambridge UP, 2014.
